Parapsychological Phenomena Based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
A series of lectures at the Indian Institute of World
Culture, Bangalore, was later published as Parapsychological Phenomena
based on Pathanjali's Yoga Sutras in "Facets of Humanism",
Edited by B. V. Subbarayappa, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., Madras.
1995.
This article is divided into three parts – Siddhis, Sadhaka, and Sadhana.
Parapsychological Phenomena
Based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras
B.S. Sujendra Prakash
Over the last one hundred years a large amount of research has been attempting to evaluate man's inherent capacities to know the world around him and deal with it by means that are not usually explainable by accepted sciences like Physics, Physiology, and Psychology. A new discipline of Parapsychology has emerged from this research. Even scientists from other fields have begun venturing into the study of the paranormal.
Psychology, as a branch of science, studies internal behavior in terms of what we think, feel, and perceive, and external behavior, in terms of what we do or perform. When human or animal behavior is beyond the realm of psychology, we call it paranormal behavior. This, then, is the subject matter of Parapsychology, sometimes denoted by the 23rd Greek letter psi. The internal or cognitive aspects of psi, called Extrasensory Perception (ESP), include clairvoyance, telepathy, and precognition. The kinetic or external manifestation of psi is known as Psychokinesis (PK).
Patanjali's Yoga-Sütras: An Overview
Though not much is known about Patanjali, a thorough dissemination of his 196 Sütras is evident (Taimini, p.6). These Sūtras have been conveniently divided into four sections. The first section, Samadhi Pada, deals with the nature and technique of Yoga. Yoga is an inhibition of the modifications of the mind (citta-vṛtti-nirodhah) through persistent practice (abhyasa) and detachment (vairagya). The five modifications of the mind are right Knowledge (pramana), wrong knowledge (viparyaya), fancy (vikalpa), sleep (nidra), and memory (smṛti).
The second section, Sadhana Pāda, deals with afflictions
(klesas) and the five external bahiranga practices - abstention (yama), observances (niyama), posture (asana), regulation of breath (pranayama) and abstraction (pratyāhāra). We shall
see later the relevance of these practices.
The third
section, Vibhuti Pada, deals with the three internal or antaranga practices concentration (dharana), contemplation (dhyana), and
trance (samadhi). The internal
practices, being a
complete process, constitute samyama. Samadhi is the essential state where the powers or siddhis are acquired. Around 34 Siddhis are mentioned in this section, dealt with by 41 sūtras. Some of these siddhis are of prime importance to our present discussion.
The fourth section, Kaivalya Pada, deals with the attainment of liberation or kaivalya.
If we believe that Patanjali lived around 500 B.C., we have amidst us the
oldest textbook of Yoga which has survived the ravages of time. In an age that nullifies
anything ancient as superstitious and worthless, we need to look more closely into
the vortex of certain existing scriptures. Such an attempt has been made in this
exposition to understand some of the sutras in the light of new parapsychological
insight.
The first part of this exposition deals with a few siddhis enumerated by Patañjali.
It tries to link these paranormal accomplishments to the knowledge acquired by careful
scientific study. It identifies and explains the siddhis from a modern parapsychological
point of view.
The second part takes into consideration certain inborn and acquired characteristics
of a Yogi. It evaluates the significance of acquiring such characteristics.
The third and last part brings out the importance of achieving the state of
Liberation (kaivalya) and its consequent effect on the Siddhis.
I. Siddhis
i) ClairvoyanceThe 26th sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions the knowledge of the subtle, the hidden,
and the distant (sūkṣma-vyavahita- viprakṛṣṭa-jñānam; Taimini, p.324). The 37th
sūtra of the same section talks about intuitional hearing, touch, sight, taste,
and smell (Taimini, p.347). In the 42nd sutra, there is a reference to superphysical
hearing or clairaudience (divyam śrotram, Taimini p.347). The 50th sūtra mentions
omniscience (sarvajñātṛtvam; Taimini, p.364).
All these sutras are trying to explain what parapsychologists study as clairvoyance. Clairvoyance refers to the perception of objects or events without the use of sensory channels. Experimental testing of clairvoyance started as early as the 1930s, thanks to the pioneering efforts of Dr. J.B. Rhine. He used cards with Zener Symbols. There were five sets of cards, five cards in each set. The symbols
used were star, square, circle, plus mark or
cross, and wavy lines. Though other
symbols could
have been used, he felt that these
symbols were comparatively
neutral to
all those who would be involved in a test of
ESP.
Even now, these cards are being used. The
advantage of using these cards under experimental conditions is the possibility
of quantification of paranormal capability, hitherto inaccessible. In addition,
the statistical treatment of the obtained data opens up new vistas in the research
on clairvoyance.
A typical clairvoyance test in an experimental
laboratory involves an individual calling out the order in which 25 ESP cards are
placed behind a screen or in another room. Each card is sealed inside an opaque
cover so that neither the individuals nor those who are experimenting are aware
of the symbol on any card. Several such runs are necessary to arrive at conclusive
evidence for clairvoyance. The experimental testing of clairvoyance has now become
more sophisticated and accurate, because of the technological development in instrumentation.
The clairvoyant ability manifests itself
in several forms. Gerard Croiset of Holland, for instance, has been credited with
Psychometry - an ability to recall the antecedents of a person, alive or dead, by
holding an object that once belonged to him.
Mrs. Eileen Garrett, one of the psychics
who has been studied extensively, says that she can see a misty surround' (quoted
in Garrett) encircling every living being. The notion of aura, the energy surrounding
every object and living being, is quite well-known to the early clairvoyants. Great
beings are depicted with halos. In 1939, Semyon Kirlian, along with his wife
Valentina, invented a photographic technique that authenticated what the clairvoyants
were saying.
Dowsing, the ability to know what is underground,
is another form of clairvoyance. Billet reading, scrying (crystal-gazing), divination,
and traveling clairvoyance, are some of the other ways in which divyacaksus, or
clairvoyance, manifests.
Space and time do not play a significant
role in the perception of objects and events, Clairvoyants cognize information
and obtain knowledge of the subtle, the hidden, and the distant. Patanjali goes
a step ahead and talks about the knowledge of the solar system and stars. However,
modern parapsychology has restricted itself to terrestrial matters alone.
In the 19th sutra of Vibhuti Pada, Patanjali
mentions the knowledge of another's mind (para-citta-jñānam; Taimini, p.316). The
35th sutra refers to the awareness of the nature of the mind (citta-samvit, Taimini,
p.335)
Tests on telepathy or thought transference
abound in parapsychological research. Telepathy is tested by using cards, numbers,
drawings, emotions, images, kinetic impulses, sensations, and scores of other things.
One of the greatest researches in telepathy
is the Grand Moscow-Siberia Telepathy Test conducted in 1966. The receiver, Karl
Nikolaiev, was in Siberia and nearly 3000 kms., away in Moscow, was the sender,
Kamensky. Nikolaiev was able to discern a significant number of objects and symbols
sent telepathically by Kamensky. Nikolaiev attributes his ability to self-training.
He claims to have studied Yogic philosophy and Raja Yoga. And especially, he says
he had practiced the breathing exercises for eleven years (Ostrander and Schroeder,
p.24). The advent of Nikolaiev in the Russian arena led many other scientists
to train senders and receivers. Thus, telepathic capability, which was earlier considered
innate, can now be learned.
Dr. Vasiliev has proved that even telepathic
hypnosis is possible. His work has led several other scientists to venture into
the area where mental suggestions can influence an individual who is miles away
from the sender.
Wolf Messing, the psychic Stalin had tested,
is one of the greatest geniuses the world has ever seen. In his younger days, he
encountered men like Einstein, Freud, and Gandhi. All these men were, no doubt,
convinced of Messing's capability. Messing had predicted the death of Hitler quite
accurately. Messing's prophecies are innumerable. He explains his ability thus:
'By straining my willpower I suddenly see
the culminating result of a stream of events. I call it 'direct knowledge'. I don't
see anything mystical about it. The future shapes itself from the past and the present,
and there are certain models or bonds between them. Understanding the mechanism
of this direct knowledge is at present inaccessible to us, because our ideas of
the essence of time, of its ties with space, with the past, present, and future
are as yet indefinite' (Gris and Dick, p.63).
Experimental investigations in psychology
have shown that the 'Perception of Time' is related to the nature of one's conscious
activity and the level of arousal.
Nikolai Kosyrev, an astrophysicist, has
developed a new theory of time. According to him, 'Time is a form of energy!' (Quoted
by Rein Y. Kozyrev).
Modern physics has given us an understanding
of time in space. The Theory of Relativity, the Special Theory of Relativity, the
Quantum Theory, the Uncertainty Principle, the theoretical possibility of 'Time
Reversal', and forms of matter that can travel faster than light - all have resulted
in a better understanding of paranormal phenomena.
An untrained individual would experience
the phenomenon of precognition through precognitive dreams, premonitions, and intuition.
Stevenson (pp.187-210) has, in particular, studied extensively the precognition
of disasters. One study is about the reports on the sinking of the ship, Titanic.
Skilled psychics can 'project' into the
future. Apart from Wolf Messing, there are famous personalities like Nostradamus,
Jeane Dixon, and Vanga Dimitrova of Bulgaria. Dimitrova is equally good at what
is shown as retrocognition (perception of the past).
Not unlike Patanjali, several trainers
in psychic abilities have contributed to the learning of the skills of precognition.
Some of these trainers are Milan Ryzl of Prague, Gellerstein, and Varvara Ivanova.
As far as Patanjali is concerned, he states
clearly in the 16th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, about the knowledge of the past and the
future (atītānāgata - jñānam; Taimini, p.307) and how to achieve this knowledge.
The 18th sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions
the knowledge of previous birth (pūrva-jātijñānam; Taimini, p.316).
Reincarnation Memory or
purvaniṛvāsānusmrti has been studied extensively throughout the world. Ian Stevenson (pp.187-210)
has collated several cases where, for instance, a child remembers their past life
and provides a detailed account of how they had lived; how the death came about;
and who were its family members, neighbors, relatives, etc., all of which have been
corroborated.
In India, Satwant Pasricha has also studied
several such cases. A complete picture of Past Life Memory Case Studies has been
presented by James Matlock (pp.184-267).
Another interesting account of past life
events has been narrated by Jeffery Iverson in his book "More Lives than One?"
He investigates the stories told by subjects who were induced into hypnotic trance
by the hypnotist Arnall Bloxham.
Death and dying, survival of bodily death,
and contact with the dead are certain other fields where extensive studies have
been undertaken. As it is beyond the scope of the present exposition to explain
this research, let it suffice to say that Patanjali's conception of rebirth is not
baseless.
In the 44th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, Patañjili
talks about a state called mahā-videha (Taimini, p.349). This means: to remain without
a body. Whatever the interpretation of this word, if we just look at the amount
of research conducted on the Out-of-Body- Experiences or Astral Projection, we are
left with little doubt that Patanjali was trying to explain none other than these
experiences. In a typical Out-of-Body-Experience (OBE), the individual feels that
he is leaving his physical body, hovering over a distance from it, and observing
objects or events that are not cognizable from where the physical body is lying
down. The most versatile account of such experiences is found in the book, Journeys
Out of the Body by Robert Monroe. It is more than coincidence that, while these
experiences are also reported as 'disembodied Consciousness', Taimini translates
Patanjali's 44th sūtra as:
"The power of contacting the state
of consciousness which is outside the intellect and is therefore inconceivable is
called Mahā-videhā. From it is destroyed the covering of light' (p.350).
While OBES elucidates the possibility of
apparitions, Patanjali moves a step ahead and enunciates the entering of another's
body (para-sariräveśaḥ; Taimini, p.343), in his 39th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda. We rarely
have come across a living being possessing another living being in the parapsychological
literature, though Colin Wilson and Damon Wilson admit such a possibility. However,
the cases of Possession by discarnate beings are innumerable.
Psychokinesis refers to the movement of
objects in the absence of physical force.
In his 40th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, Patanjali
talks about levitation (utkranti, Taimini, p.345). When one can suspend physically
oneself and move about in the air, we attribute one with levitation. The earliest
corroboration of levitation comes from the adventures of D.D. Home. Other psychics
who could levitate objects and people include Uri Geller and Boris Ermolaev.
The 43rd sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions
passage through space (ākāśa-gamanam; Taimini, p.348). Though teleportation has
been mentioned in parapsychological literature, the best account of it comes from
Carlos Castaneda.
Patanjali also includes in his list of
siddhis, the ability to become invisible (antardhanam; Taimini, p.319). This is
yet to be investigated by both paraphysicists and parapsychologists.
The other siddhis which are mentioned by
Patanjali, are beyond the realm of parapsychology, and hence they are not discussed
here.
II. Sādhaka
A Yogi has certain characteristic features
and has to fulfill certain prerequisites which are essential for his accomplishments.
Not surprisingly, Patañjali devotes quite several sūtras to elucidate such qualities.
This section tries to explain their veracity.
(The 1st sutra of Kaivalya Pada says: "The
siddhis are the result of birth, drugs, mantras, austerities or samadhi'. (Taimini,
p.377).
Almost identically, parapsychology too
identifies four types of psychics:
(a) Most psychics have the ability by birth;
(b) Some are induced (by drugs or hypnosis);
(c) Some are trained; and
(d) Some acquire the ability by chance.
The last is quite rare and has not been
explicitly mentioned by Patanjali. One good example of such a cases is Robert Monroe,
who started experiencing OBES quite unexpectedly.
Let us consider the other types in detail.
The 19th sūtra of Samadhi Pāda says:
'Of those who are Videhas and Prakṛtilayas
birth is the cause,' (Taimini, p.45)
Commentators differ in their interpretation
of the words videha and prakṛtilaya. Videha means body-less. I surmise that it refers
to one or more of the following three categories:
(a) Ghosts and spirits which are capable
of influencing living beings through possession, poltergeist, materialization, etc.;
(b) Mediums who go into trance and communicate
with the dead or who produce psychokinetic effects; and
(c) Reincarnates who feel that the bodies
which they inhabit do not belong to them.
Taimini prefers to agree with the second
category.
The word prakṛtilaya has been interpreted
by Taimini to mean 'merged-in-Prakṛti' (p.46), and he feels that it refers to pseudo-Yogis.
He could be right because most of the famous psychics have had the ability by birth.
The use of drugs is not new to any culture.
Indian fakirs and sadhus are known to have used them. Tribals from all over the world
are adept at using their concoctions. Witch doctors, shamans, mystics, and scores
of other people have been using drugs time and again. Modern technology has brought
in psychedelic drugs like LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin. The use of marijuana is
unparalleled in history.
Apart from the moral, legal, and clinical
implications of these drugs, the question is whether these drugs bring about paranormal
experiences or not. Case studies and a few experimental investigations have shown
that they do. However, such paranormal behaviors are unpredictable and uncontrolled.
Drug-induced psychic experiences are neither reliable nor commendable.
Mantras are persistent repetitions of some
selected sounds. Brain research has shown that,
...... the emergence of psi is based, (a)
on bypassing the screening function of the reticular formation and the limbic midbrain
system, and (b) on the central processing of incoming stimuli or outgoing messages
in the right hemisphere' (Ehrenwald, p.726).
Whether mantras fulfill these functions
or not is a point of conjecture and detailed scientific laboratory studies will
be necessary to answer this question. However, it may be noted that research in
related areas has shown that relaxation (especially when induced) and hypnosis,
are conducive to paranormal behavior. In addition, increased Alpha activity, as
measured by Electroencephalography (EEG), also enhances psi responses. Mantras have
the potential to bring about relaxation, hypnotic suggestibility as well as increased
alpha activity.
Tapas can be roughly translated as purification,
self-discipline, and austerity (Taimini, p.225). It is one of the five niyamas.
It is also an element in kriya-yoga. The 43rd sutra of Sadhana Pada is translated
thus:
'Perfection of the sense-organs and
body after the destruction of impurity by austerities.' (Taimini, p.249)
Tapas is a stepping stone for success in
the furtherance of practices in terms of asanas, prāṇāyāma, and pratyāhāra. No doubt
several training procedures of modern parapsychologists insist on the perfection
of sense-organs and body. It is pointed out by Taimini that tapas
..... sometimes lead to the development
of some of the lower Siddhis.' (p.249)
Though we are not clear as to what these
lower siddhis are, one clue comes from the first sentences in The Voice of the Silence
(Blavatsky, H.P.) which says,
'These instructions are for those ignorant
of the dangers of the lower Iddhi'.
Iddhi is the Pali word for Siddhi.
Often samadhi has been considered to be
the true way of attaining siddhis. Here, one has to train oneself systematically
by going through the whole process of Raja Yoga involving the eight stages. Charles
Honorton refers to this as a progressive system of psychophysical noise reduction.'
(p.438). He goes on to explain that the object of external or bahiranga practices
is to reduce external distraction while that of internal or antaranga practices
is to reduce internal distraction.
Such explanations are convincing. However,
there is a considerable difference in the perspectives between a Western psychological
point of view and a typical Indian philosophical thought.
Let us first consider the following statement
by Stuart Holroyd.
..... modern psychological theory and experiment
have made it very clear that our senses were not evolved to acquire knowledge of
the Universe but for survival within our environment, and that the function of sensory
systems is to reduce the amount of information that reaches consciousness.'
Western psychology deals with consciousness
as if it is passive. As far as there is no stimulation from the environment or from
within, no conscious experience occurs. The response to a stimulus is a consequence
of such consciousness. There are so much of ontological attributes to consciousness.
It is static and passive unless it is stimulated.
Indian philosophy, or more specifically,
Indian psychology holds a different viewpoint. The Citta is quite independent. Imagine Citta to be a horse without reins.
It can go anywhere in any direction or it can go nowhere. However, it is potentially
active and dynamic. It can function in five ways, as Patanjali mentions in his sixth
sūtra of Samadhi Pada: pramāṇa, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra and smrti (Taimini, p.13).
These functions are explained in the next five sūtras.
Left to itself, the Citta, like our horse
without rein, would continue with these functions. The essence of yoga is to inhibit
such modifications or functions- 'Yoga's citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ (Taimini, p.6).
There are advantages. Experiments have
shown that subliminal perception, supraliminal perception, and sensory deprivation
are conducive to psi performance.
Returning to our discussion, we can say
that the purpose of Raja Yoga is not to reduce external and internal distractions
but to inhibit the citta from seeking its normal functioning.
Experimental studies on psi and meditation
(Dukhan and Rao, pp.148-151) have revealed that whichever is the form of meditation
- Zen, Transcendental, Mandala Gazing, Pranayama, Kundalini Yoga, Mantra Yoga, Karma
Yoga, etc. - There is a significant increase in paranormal performance as a result
of it.
Let us now turn to the Personality Variables.
The 21st sutra of Samadhi Päda says 'Tivrasamvegānām äsännäh'. Taimini translates
it as 'It (Samadhi) is nearest to those whose desire (for Samadhi) is intensely
strong."23
The earlier sutra talks about Faith (śraddha)22
In a series of experiments, Gertrude Schmeidler
found out that the believers (Sheep) in ESP scored significantly higher than the
non-believers (Goats). This sheep-goat effect was proved in another series of tests
involving 692 'sheep' and 465 'goats'. The former scored significantly below chance
in ESP.
The 30th sutra of Samadhi Pāda is translated
by Taimini thus:
'Disease, languor, doubt, carelessness,
laziness, worldly-mindedness, delusion, non-achievement of a stage, instability,
these (nine) cause the distraction of the mind and they are the obstacles. '24
The next sutra says:
'(Mental) pain, despair, nervousness, and
hard breathing are the symptoms of a distracted condition of mind.' (Taimini, p.82).
The 32nd sūtra is explained thus:
'For removing these obstacles there (should
be) constant practice of one truth or principle.' (Taimini, p.84)
The 33rd sūtra mentions:
"The mind becomes clarified by cultivating
attitudes of friendliness, compassion, gladness, and indifference respectively towards
happiness, misery, virtue, and vice.' (Taimini, p.85).
Though Patanjali has an exhaustive list
of the characteristics that are necessary for a yogi, parapsychology does not seem
to be well-equipped with such a list. However, research on several personality variables
has revealed one common factor I may very well agree with what Patanjali says. Well-adjusted individuals
tend to score high on ESP.
III. Sadhana
What is the essential state in which the
paranormal behaviors occur? Though Patanjali puts forward a detailed analysis of
the state of kaivalya where pure consciousness is present, parapsychology identifies
one common denominator in psychic experiences: the Altered States of Consciousness
(ASC). An ASC is explained in terms of extreme fluctuation from normal states of
consciousness detected by either the person himself or a qualified observer.
ASC can be produced by:
(a) Extreme decrease or increase in external
stimulation along with the accompanying muscular activity;
(b) Increased or decreased alertness; and
(c) Intense changes in the body as a result
of disease, drugs, or loss of sleep. (Honorton, p.430)
By drawing a parallel to Patanjali's description,
we find that the external practices refer to the decrease in external stimulation;
the internal practices refer to increased alertness.
Research in Parapsychology has revealed
that ASC can be brought about through any of the following ways:
(a) Mystic experiences;
(b) Hypnosis;
(c) Meditation;
(d) Hypnogogic State (a transition state
between waking and sleep);
(e) Dream consciousness;
(f) Effects of minor and major psychedelic
drugs; and
(g) Sensory deprivation
The ASC has been linked with trance. It
has also been associated with increased alpha activity. It is capable of eliciting
psi responses under controlled experimental conditions. And probably training in
ASC can produce psi too.
Nevertheless, it is imperative to make
one point clear. ASC is not equivalent to achieving a state of samadhi. Siddhis
are acquired as a result of performing samyama. In addition, there are other concomitants,
which are more important. The paranormal accomplishments are merely by-products.
The ultimate goal is to attain kaivalya which is in itself a starting point for
further unknown achievements. Indian philosophy believes in cyclical processes that
are never-ending. Let us, at least, say that we have been able to put our maiden
step ahead by achieving ASC in a scientifically viable way.
The essence of the Yoga Sutras lies in
the fact that they are permissive of varied interpretations. Perhaps Patanjali had
foresight, too. He never revealed too much but said everything that had substances.
Even though parapsychology is developing at a fast rate, very few sutras are amenable
to exploration. Who knows what else is in store? Future only could unravel the mystery.
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