Parapsychological Phenomena Based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras

A series of lectures at the Indian Institute of World Culture, Bangalore, was later published as Parapsychological Phenomena based on Pathanjali's Yoga Sutras in "Facets of Humanism", Edited by B. V. Subbarayappa, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., Madras. 1995.

This article is divided into three parts – Siddhis, Sadhaka, and Sadhana.

Parapsychological Phenomena 

Based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras 

B.S. Sujendra Prakash 

Over the last one hundred years a large amount of research has been attempting to evaluate man's inherent capacities to know the world around him and deal with it by means which are not usually explainable by accepted sciences like Physics, Physiology and Psychology. A new discipline of Parapsychology has emerged from these researches. Even scientists from other fields have begun venturing into the study of the paranormal. 

Psychology, as a branch of science, studies the internal behaviour in terms of what we think, feel and perceive, and the external behaviour, in terms of what we do or perform. When human or animal behaviour is beyond the realm of psychology, we call it paranormal behaviour. This, then, is the subject matter of Parapsychology, sometimes denoted by the 23rd Greek letter psi. The internal or cognitive aspects of psi, called Extrasensory Perception (ESP), includes clairvoyance, telepathy and precognition. The kinetic or external manifestation of psi is known as Psychokinesis (PK).

Patanjali's Yoga-Sütras: An Overview

Though not much is known about Patanjali, a thorough dissemination of his 196 Sütras is evident (Taimini, p.6). These Sūtras have been conveniently divided into four sections. The first section, Samadhi Pada, deals with the nature and technique of Yoga. Yoga is a inhibition of the modifications of the mind (citta-vṛtti-nirodhah) through persistent practice (abhyasa) and detachment (vairagya). The five modifications of the mind are right Knowledge (pramana), wrong knowledge (viparyaya), fancy (vikalpa), sleep (nidra) and memory (smṛti). 

The second section, Sadhana Pāda, deals with afflictions (klesas) and the five external of bahiranga practices - abstention (yama), observances (niyama), posture (asana), regulation of breath (pranayama) and abstraction (pratyāhāra). We shall see later the relevance of these practices. 

The third section, Vibhuti Pada, deals with the three internal or antaranga practices concentration (dharana), contemplation (dhyana) and trance (samadhi). The internal practices, being a complete process, constitute samyama. Samadhi is the essential state where the powers or siddhis are acquired. Around 34 Siddhis are mentioned in this section, dealt with by 41 sūtras. Some of these siddhis are of prime importance to our present discussion. 

The fourth section, Kaivalya Pada, deals with the attainment of liberation or kaivalya. 

If we believe that Patanjali lived around 500 B.C., we have amidst us the oldest textbook of Yoga which has survived the ravages of time. In an age which nullifies anything ancient as superstitious and worthless, we need to look more closely into the vortex of certain existing scriptures. Such an attempt has been made in this exposition to understand some of the sutras in the light of new parapsychological insight. 

The first part of this exposition deals with a few siddhis enumerated by Patañjali. It tries to link these paranormal accomplishments to the knowledge acquired by careful scientific study. It identifies and explains the siddhis from a modern parapsychological point of view. 

The second part takes into consideration certain inborn and acquired characteristics of a Yogi. It evaluates the significance of acquiring such characteristics. 

The third and last part brings out the importance of achieving the state of Liberation (kaivalya) and its consequent effect on the Siddhis. 

I. Siddhis

i) Clairvoyance

The 26th sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions the knowledge of the subtle, the hidden and the distant (sūkṣma-vyavahita- viprakṛṣṭa-jñānam; Taimini, p.324). The 37th sūtra of the same section talks about intuitional hearing, touch, sight, taste and smell (Taimini, p.347). In the 42nd sutra, there is reference to superphysical hearing or clairaudience (divyam śrotram, Taimini p.347). The 50th sūtra mentions omniscience (sarvajñātṛtvam; Taimini, p.364). 

All these sutras are trying to explain what parapsychologists study as clairvoyance. Clairvoyance basically refers to the perception of objects or events without the use of sensory channels. Experimental testing of clairvoyance started as early as 1930's, thanks to the pioneering efforts of Dr. J.B. Rhine. He used cards with Zener Symbols. There were five sets of cards, five cards in each set. The symbols used were star, square, circle, plus mark or cross, and wavy lines. Though other symbols could have been used, he felt that these symbols were comparatively neutral to all those who would be involved in a test of ESP. 

Even now, these cards are being used. The advantage of using these cards under experimental conditions is the possibility of quantification of paranormal capability, hitherto inaccessible. In addition, the statistical treatment of the obtained data opens up new vistas in the research on clairvoyance. 

A typical clairvoyance test in an experimental laboratory involves an individual calling out the order in which 25 ESP cards are placed behind a screen or in another room. Each card is sealed inside an opaque cover so that neither the individuals nor those who are conducting the experiment are aware of the symbol on any card. Several such runs are necessary to arrive at a conclusive evidence for clairvoyance. The experimental testing of clairvoyance has now become more sophisticated and accurate, because of the technological development in instrumentation. 

The clairvoyant ability manifests itself in several forms. Gerard Croiset of Holland, for instance, has been credited with Psychometry - an ability to recall the antecedents of a person, alive or dead, by holding an object that once belonged to him. 

Mrs. Eileen Garrett, one of the psychics who have been studied extensively, says that she is able to see a misty surround' (quoted in Garrett) encircling every living being. The notion of aura, the energy surrounding every object and living being, is quite well known to the early clairvoyants. Great beings are depicted with halos. In 1939, Semyon Kirlian, along with his wife Valentina, invented a photographic technique which authenticated what the clairvoyants were saying. 

Dowsing, the ability to know what is underground, is another form of clairvoyance. Billet reading, scrying (crystal-gazing), divination, travelling clairvoyance, are some of the other ways in which divyacaksus or clairvoyance, manifests.

Space and time do not play a significant role in the perception of objects and events, Clairvoyants cognize information and obtain knowledge of the subtle, the hidden and the distant. Patanjali goes a step ahead and talks about the knowledge of solar system and stars. However, modern parapsychology has restricted itself to terrestrial matters alone. 

ii) Telepathy

In the 19th sutra of Vibhuti Pada, Patanjali mentions the knowledge of another's mind (para-citta-jñānam; Taimini, p.316). The 35th sutra refers to the awareness of the nature of mind (citta-samvit, Taimini, p.335) 

Tests on telepathy or thought transference abound in parapsychological research. Telepathy is tested by using cards, numbers, drawings, emotions, images, kinetic impulses, sensations and scores of other things. 

One of the greatest researches in telepathy is the Grand Moscow-Siberia Telepathy Test conducted in 1966. The receiver, Karl Nikolaiev, was in Siberia and nearly 3000 km. away in Moscow, was the sender, Kamensky. Nikolaiev was able to discern a significant number of objects and symbols sent telepathically by Kamensky. Nikolaiev attributes his ability to self- training. He claims to have studied Yogic philosophy and Raja Yoga. And especially, he says he had practiced the breathing exercises for eleven years (Ostrander and Schroeder, p.24). The advent of Nikolaiev in the Russian arean led many other scientists to train senders and receivers. Thus, telepathic capability, which was earlier considered innate, can now be learnt. 

Dr. Vasiliev has proved that even telepathic hypnosis is possible. His work has led several other scientists to venture into the area where mental suggestions can influence an individual who is miles away from the sender. 

iii) Precognition

Wolf Messing, the psychic Stalin had tested, is one of the greatest geniuses the world has ever seen. In his younger days he encountered great men like Einstein, Freud and Gandhi. All these men were, no doubt, convinced of Messing's capability. Messing had predicted the death of Hitler quite accurately. Messing's prophecies are innumerable. He explains his ability thus: 

'By straining my willpower I suddenly see the culminating result of a stream of events. I call it 'direct knowledge'. I don't see anything mystical about it. The future shapes itself from the past and the present, and there are certain models or bonds between them. Understanding the mechanism of this direct knowledge is at present inaccessible to us, because our ideas of the essence of time, of its ties with space, with the past, present, and future are as yet indefinite' (Gris and Dick, p.63). 

Experimental investigations in psychology have shown that the 'Perception of Time' is related to the nature of one's conscious activity and the level of arousal. 

Nikolai Kosyrev, an astrophysicist, has developed a new theory of time. According to him, 'Time is a form of energy!' (Quoted by Rein Y.Kozyrev).

Modern physics has given us an understanding of time in space. The Theory of Relativity, the Special Theory of Relativity, the Quantum Theory, the Uncertainty Principle, the theoretical possibility of 'Time Reversal', forms of matter that can travel faster than light - all these have resulted in a better understanding of paranormal phenomena. 

An untrained individual would experience the phenomenon of precognition through precognitive dreams, premonitions and intuition. Stevenson (pp.187-210) has, in particular, studied extensively the precognition of disasters. One study is about the reports on the sinking of the ship, Titanic. 

Skilled psychics are able to 'project' into the future. Apart from Wolf Messing, there are famous personalities like Nostradamus, Jeane Dixon and Vanga Dimitrova of Bulgaria. Dimitrova is equally good at what is shown as retrocognition (perception of the past). 

Not unlike Patanjali, several trainers in psychic abilities have contributed to the learning of the skills of precognition. Some of these trainers are Milan Ryzl of Prague, Gellerstein and Varvara Ivanova. 

As far as Patanjali is concerned, he states clearly in the 16th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, about the knowledge of the past and the future (atītānāgata - jñānam; Taimini, p.307) and how to achieve this knowledge. 

iv) Knowledge of Previous Birth

The 18th sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions the knowledge of previous birth (pūrva-jātijñānam; Taimini, p.316). 

Reincarnation Memory or purvaniṛvāsānusmrti has been studied extensively throughtout the world. Ian Stevenson (pp.187-210) has collated a number of cases where, for instance, a child remembers its past life and provides a detailed account of how it had lived; how the death came about; and who were its family members, neighbours, relatives, etc., all of which have been corroborated. 

In India, Satwant Pasricha has also studied several such cases. A complete picture of Past Life Memory Case Studies has been presented by James Matlock (pp.184-267). 

Another interesting account of past life events has been narrated by Jeffery Iverson in his book "More Lives than One?" He investigates the stories told by subjects who were induced into hypnotic trance by the hypnotist Arnall Bloxham. 

Death and dying, survival of bodily death and contact with the dead, are certain other fields where extensive studies have been undertaken. As it is beyond the scope of the present exposition to explain these researches, let it suffice to say that Patanjali's conception of rebirth is not baseless. 

In the 44th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, Patañjili talks about a state called mahā-videha (Taimini, p.349). This means: to remain without a body. Whatever be the interpretation of this word, if we just look at the amount of research conducted on the Out-of-Body- Experiences or Astral Projection, we are left with little doubt that Patanjali was trying to explain none other than these experiences. In a typical Out-of-Body-Experience (OBE), the individual feels that he is leaving his physical body, hovering over a distance from it, and observing objects or events that are not cognizable from where the physical body is lying down. The most versatile account of such experiences is found in the book, Journeys Out of the Body by Robert Monroe. It is more than coincidence that, while these experiences are also reported as 'disembodied Consciousness', Taimini translates Patanjali's 44th sūtra as: 

"The power of contacting the state of consciousness which is outside the intellect and is therefore inconceivable is called Mahā-videhā. From it is destroyed the covering of light' (p.350). 

While OBES elucidate the possibility of apparitions, Patanjali moves a step ahead and enunciates the entering of another's body (para-sariräveśaḥ; Taimini, p.343), in his 39th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda. We rarely have come across a living being possessing another living being in the parapsychological literature, though Colin Wilson and Damon Wilson admit such a possibility. However, the cases of Possession by discarnate beings are innumerable. 

v) Psychokinesis

Psychokinesis refers to the movement of objects in the absence of physical force. 

In his 40th sūtra of Vibhuti Pāda, Patanjali talks about levitation (utkranti, Taimini, p.345). When one is able to suspend physically oneself and move about in air, we attribute one with levitation. The earliest corroboration of levitation comes from the adventures of D.D. Home. Other psychics who could levitate objects and people include Uri Geller and Boris Ermolaev. 

The 43rd sūtra of Vibhuti Pada mentions passage through space (ākāśa-gamanam; Taimini, p.348). Though teleportation has been mentioned in parapsychological literature, the best account of it comes from Carlos Castaneda. 

Patanjali also includes in his list of siddhis, the ability to become invisible (antardhanam; Taimini, p.319). This is yet to be investigated by both paraphysicists and parapsychologists. 

The other siddhis which are mentioned by Patanjali, are beyond the realm of parapsychology, and hence they are not discussed here. 

II. Sādhaka

A Yogi has certain characteristic features and has to fulfil certain prerequisites which are essential for his accomplishments. Not surprisingly, Patañjali devotes quite a number of sūtras to elucidate such qualities. This section tries to explain their veracity. 

(The 1st sutra of Kaivalya Pada says: "The siddhis are the result of birth, drugs, mantras, austerities or samadhi'. (Taimini, p.377). 

Almost identically, parapsychology too identifies four types of psychics: 

(a) Most psychics have the ability by birth; 

(b) Some are induced (by drugs or hypnosis);

(c) Some are trained; and 

(d) Some acquire the ability by chance. 

The last is quite rare and has not been explicitly mentioned by Patanjali. One good example of such cases is Robert Monroe, who started experiencing OBES quite unexpectedly. 

Let us consider the other types in detail. 

i)Birth

The 19^th sūtra of Samadhi Pāda says: 

'Of those who are Videhas and Prakṛtilayas birth is the cause,' (Taimini, p.45) 

Commentators differ in their interpretation of the words videha and prakṛtilaya. Videha, literally means body-iless. I surmise that it refers to one or more of the following three categories: 

(a) Ghosts and spirits which are capable of influencing living beings through possession, poltergeist, materialization, etc.;

(b) Mediums who go into trance and communicate with the dead or who produce psychokinetic effects; and 

(c) Reincarnates who feel that the bodies which they inhabit do not belong to them. 

Taimini prefers to agree with the second category. 

The word prakṛtilaya has been interpreted by Taimini to mean 'merged-in-Prakṛti' (p.46), and he feels that it refers to pseudo-Yogis. He could be right because most of the famous psychics have had the ability by birth. 

ii) Drugs

The use of drugs is not new to any culture. Indian fakirs and sadhus are known to have used them. Tribals from all over the world are adepts at using their own concoctions. Witch doctors, shamans, mystics and scores of other people have been using drugs time and again. Modern technology has brought in psychedelic drugs like LSD, mescaline and psilocybin. The use of marijuana is unparalleled in history. 

Apart from the moral, legal and clinical implications of these drugs, the question is whether these drugs bring about paranormal experiences or not? Case studies and a few experimental investigations have shown that they do. However, such paranormal behaviours are unpredictable and uncontrolled. It goes without saying that drug-induced psychic experiences are neither reliable nor commendable. 

iii) Mantras

Mantras are persistent repetition of some selected sounds. Brain research has shown that, 

...... the emergence of psi is based, (a) on bypassing the screening function of the reticular formation and the limbic midbrain system, and (b) on the central processing of incoming stimuli or outgoing messages in the right hemisphere' (Ehrenwald, p.726). 

Whether mantras fulfil these functions or not is a point of conjecture and detailed scientific laboratory studies will be necessary to answer this question. However, it may be noted that researches in related areas, have shown that relaxation (especially when induced) and hypnosis, are conducive to paranormal behaviour. In addition, increased Alpha activity, as measured by the Electroencephalography (EEG), also enhanses psi responses. Mantras have the potential to bring about relaxation, hypnotic suggestibility as well as increased alpha activity. 

iv) Tapas

Tapas can be roughly translated as purification, self discipline and austerity (Taimini, p.225). It is one of the five niyamas. It is also an element in kriya-yoga. The 43rd sutra of Sadhana Pada is translated thus: 

'Perfection of the sense-organs and body after destruction of impurity by austerities.' (Taimini, p.249) 

Tapas is a stepping stone for successes in furtherence of practices in terms of asanas, prāṇāyāma and pratyāhāra. No doubt several training procedures of modern parapsychologists insist on the perfection of sense-organs and body. It is pointed out by Taimini that tapas 

..... sometimes lead to the development of some of the lower Siddhis.' (p.249) 

Though we are not clear as to what these lower siddhis are, one clue comes from the first sentences in The Voice of the Silence (Blavatsky, H.P.) which says, 

'These instructions are for those ignorant of the dangers of the lower Iddhi'. 

Iddhi is the Pali word for Siddhi. 

v)Samadhi

Often samadhi has been considered to be the true way of attaining siddhis. Here, one has to train oneself systematically by going through the whole process of Raja Yoga involving the eight stages. Charles Honorton refers to this as a progressive system of psychophysical noise reduction.' (p.438). He goes on to explain that the object of external or bahiranga practices is to reduce external distraction while that of internal or antaranga practices is to reduce internal distraction. 

Such explanations are apparently convincing. However, there is a considerable difference in the perspectives between a western psychological point of view and a typical Indian philosophical thought. 

Let us first consider the following statement by Stuart Holroyd. 

..... modern psychological theory and experiment have made it very clear that our senses were not evolved for the purpose of acquiring knowledge of the Universe but for survival within our environment, and that the function of sensory systems is to reduce the amount of information that reaches consciousness.' 

Western psychology deals with consciousness as if it is passive. As far as there is no stimulation from the environment or from within, no conscious experience occurs. The response to a stimulus is a consequence of such consciousness. There is so much of ontological attribute to consciousness. It is static and passive unless it is stimulated. 

Indian philosophy, or more specifically, Indian psychology holds a totally different viewpoint. The citta is quite independent. Imagine citta to be a horse without rein. It can go anywhere in any direction or it can go nowhere. However, it is potentially active and dynamic. It has the capability to function in five ways, as Patanjali mentions in his sixth sūtra of Samadhi Pada: pramāṇa, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra and smrti (Taimini, p.13). These functions are explained in the next five sūtras. 

Left to itself, the citta, like our horse without rein, would continue with these functions. The essence of yoga is to inhibit such modifications or functions- 'Yoga's citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ (Taimini, p.6). 

Obviously, there are advantages. Experiments have shown that subliminal perception, supraliminal perception and sensory deprivation are conducive to psi performance. 

Returning to our discussion, we can say that the purpose of Raja Yoga is not to reduce external and internal distractions but to inhibit the citta from seeking its normal functioning. 

Experimental studies on psi and meditation (Dukhan and Rao, pp.148-151) have revealed that whichever is the form of meditation - Zen, Transcendental, Mandala Gazing, Pranayama, Kundalini Yoga, Mantra Yoga, Karma Yoga, etc. - There is a significant increase in paranormal performance as a result of it. 

6. Belief

Let us now turn to the Personality Variables. The 21st sutra of Samadhi Päda says 'Tivrasamvegānām äsännäh'. Taimini translates it as, 'It (Samadhi) is nearest to those whose desire (for Samadhi) is intensely strong."²³ 

The earlier sutra talks about Faith (śraddha)²² 

In a series of experiments, Gertrude Schmeidler found out that the believers (Sheep) in ESP scored significantly higher than the non-believers (Goats). This sheep-goat effect was proved in another series of tests involving 692 'sheep' and 465 'goats'. The former scored significantly below chance in ESP. 

7. Adjustment

The 30th sutra of Samadhi Pāda is translated by Taimini thus: 

'Disease, languor, doubt, carelessness, laziness, worldly- mindedness, delusion, non-achievement of a stage, instability, these (nine) cause the distraction of the mind and they are the obstacles. '24 

The next sutra says: 

'(Mental) pain, despair, nervousness and hard breathing are the symptoms of a distracted condition of mind.' (Taimini, p.82). 

The 32nd sūtra is explained thus: 

'For removing these obstacles there (should be) constant practice of one truth or principle.' (Taimini, p.84) 

The 33rd sūtra mentions: 

"The mind becomes clarified by cultivating attitudes of friendliness, compassion, gladness and indifference respectively towards happiness, misery, virtue and vice.' (Taimini, p.85). 

Though Patanjali has an exhaustive list of the characteristics that are necessary for a yogi, parapsychology does not seem to be well-equipped with such a list. However, researches on several personality variables have revealed one common factor I may very well agree with what Patanjali says. Well-adjusted individuals tend to score high on ESP. 

III. Sadhana

What is the essential state in which the paranormal behaviours occur? Though Patanjali puts forward a detailed analysis of the state of kaivalya where pure consciousness is present, parapsychology identifies one common denominator in psychic experiences: the Altered States of Consciousness (ASC). An ASC is explained in terms of extreme fluctuation from normal states of consciousness detected by either the person himself or a qualified observer. 

ASC can be produced by: 

(a) Extreme decrease or increase in external stimulation along with the accompanying muscular activity; 

(b) Increased or decreased alertness; and 

(c) Intense changes in the body as a result of disease, drugs or loss of sleep. (Honorton, p.430) 

By drawing parallel to Patanjali's description, we find that the external practices refer to the decrease in external stimulation; the internal practices refer to increased alertness. 

Research in Parapsychology has revealed that ASC can be brought about through any of the following ways: 

(a) Mystic experiences; 

(b) Hypnosis; 

(c) Meditation; 

(d) Hypnogogic State (a transition state between waking and sleep); 

(e) Dream consciousness; 

(f) Effects of minor and major psychedelic drugs; and 

(g) Sensory deprivation

The ASC has been linked with trance. It has also been associated with increased alpha activity. It is capable of eliciting psi responses under controlled experimental conditions. And probably training in ASC can produce psi too. 

Nevertheless, it is imperative to make one point clear. ASC is not equivalent to achieving a state of samadhi. Siddhis are acquired as a result of performing samyama. In addition, there are other concomitants, which are more important. The paranormal accomplishments are merely by-products. The ultimate goal is to attain kaivalya which is in itself a starting point for further unknown achievements. Indian philosophy believes in cyclical processes which are never-ending. Let us, at least, say that we have been able to put our maiden step ahead by achieving ASC in a scientifically viable way. 

The essence of the Yoga Sutras lies in the fact that they are permissive of varied interpretations. Perhaps Patanjali had foresight, too. He never revealed too much but said everything that had substances. Despite the fact that parapsychology is developing at a fast rate, very few sutras are amenable for exploration. Who knows what else is in store? Future only could unravel the mystery. 

Select Bibliography

Blavatsky, H.P. (Translator and Annotator), The Voice of the Silence. Bombay; 1974. 

Castaneda, C., The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1968. Dukhan, H. and Rao, K.R., Meditation and ESP Scoring', in Roll, W.G., Morris, R.L. and Morris, J.D. (Eds), Research in Parapsychology, Metuchen, N.J., 1972, Scarecrow Press, 1973. 

Ehrenwald, Jl, 'Psi Phenomena and Brain Research', in Wolman, B.B. (Ed.), Handbook of Parapsychology, New York, 1977. 

Garrett, E., Awareness, new York, 1968.

Gris, H. and Dick, W., The New Soviet Psychic Discoveries, London, 1980. 

Holroyd, S., Psi and the Consciousness Explosion, London, 1971. 

Honorton, C., 'Psi and Internal Attention States', in Wolman, B.B. (Ed.), Handbook of Parapsychology, New York, 1977. Ludwig, A.M., 'Altered States of Consciousness,' Archives of General Psychiatry, 15:225-34. 

Matlock, J.G., 'Past Life Memory Case Studies', in Krippner, S. (Ed.), Advances in Parapsychological Research (Vol.6), 1990. Monroe, R.A., Journeys Out of the Body, New York, 1971. Ostrander, S. and Schroeder, L., Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain, New York, 1978. 

Rein, Y. Kozyrev, Soviet Life, November, 1965. 

Schmeidler, G.R. and McConnell, R.A., ESP and Personality Patterns. Westport, Conn, 1973. 

Stevenson, I., 'Precognition of Disasters', Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1970, 64, pp.187-210. 

Stevenson, I., 'Reincarnation: Field Studies and Theoretical Issues,' in Wolman, B.B. (Ed.), Handbook of Parapsychology. New York, 1977. 

Taimini, I.K., The Science of Yoga, Madras, 1986. 

Vasiliev, L.L., Experiments in Mental Suggestion, Hampshire, England, 1963. 

Wilson, C., and Wilson, D., Unsolved Mysteries: Past and Present, London, 1993. 

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